Ferdinand de Saussure Essay

Stylistics is the study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. As a discipline it links literary criticism and linguistics, but has no autonomous domain of its own. [1][2] The preferred object of stylistic studies is literature, but not exclusively â€Å"high literature† but also other forms of written texts such as text from the domains of advertising, pop culture, politics or religion. [3] Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the production and reception of meaning, critical discourse analysis and literary criticism. Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and people’s dialects, descriptive language, the use of grammar, such as the active voice or passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc. In addition, stylistics is a distinctive term that may be used to determine the connections between the form and effects within a particular variety of language. Therefore, stylistics looks at what is ‘going on’ within the language; what the linguistic associations are that the style of language reveals. * | Early twentieth century The analysis of literary style goes back to Classical rhetoric, but modern stylistics has its roots in Russian Formalism,[4] and the related Prague School, in the early twentieth century. In 1909, Charles Bally’s Traite de stylistique francaise had proposed stylistics as a distinct academic discipline to complement Saussurean linguistics. For Bally, Saussure’s linguistics by itself couldn’t fully describe the language of personal expression. [5] Bally’s programme fitted well with the aims of the Prague School. [6] Building on the ideas of the Russian Formalists, the Prague School developed the concept of foregrounding, whereby poetic language stands out from the background of non-literary language by means of deviation (from the norms of everyday language) or parallelism. [7] According to the Prague School, the background language isn’t fixed, and the relationship between poetic and everyday language is always shifting. [8] Late twentieth century Roman Jakobson had been an active member of the Russian Formalists and the Prague School, before emigrating to America in the 1940s. He brought together Russian Formalism and American New Criticism in his Closing Statement at a conference on stylistics at Indiana University in 1958. [9] Published as Linguistics and Poetics in 1960, Jakobson’s lecture is often credited with being the first coherent formulation of stylistics, and his argument was that the study of poetic language should be a sub-branch of linguistics. [10] The poetic function was one of six general functions of language he described in the lecture. Michael Halliday is an important figure in the development of British stylistics. [11] His 1971 study Linguistic Function and Literary Style: An Inquiry into the Language of William Golding’s ‘The Inheritors’ is a key essay. [12] One of Halliday’s contributions has been the use of the term register to explain the connections between language and its context. [13] For Halliday register is distinct from dialect. Dialect refers to the habitual language of a particular user in a specific geographical or social context. Register describes the choices made by the user,[14] choices which depend on three variables: field (â€Å"what the participants†¦ are actually engaged in doing†, for instance, discussing a specific subject or topic),[15] tenor (who is taking part in the exchange) and mode (the use to which the language is being put). Fowler comments that different fields produce different language, most obviously at the level of vocabulary (Fowler. 1996, 192) The linguist David Crystal points out that Halliday’s ‘tenor’ stands as a roughly equivalent term for ‘style’, which is a more specific alternative used by linguists to avoid ambiguity. (Crystal. 1985, 292) Halliday’s third category, mode, is what he refers to as the symbolic organisation of the situation. Downes recognises two distinct aspects within the category of mode and suggests that not only does it describe the relation to the medium: written, spoken, and so on, but also describes the genre of the text. (Downes. 1998, 316) Halliday refers to genre as pre-coded language, language that has not simply been used before, but that predetermines the selection of textual meanings. The linguist William Downes makes the point that the principal characteristic of register, no matter how peculiar or diverse, is that it is obvious and immediately recognisable. (Downes. 1998, 309) Literary stylistics In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Crystal observes that, in practice, most stylistic analysis has attempted to deal with the complex and ‘valued’ language within literature, i. e.  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœliterary stylistics’. He goes on to say that in such examination the scope is sometimes narrowed to concentrate on the more striking features of literary language, for instance, its ‘deviant’ and abnormal features, rather than the broader structures that are found in whole texts or discourses. For example, the compact language of poetry is more likely to reveal the secrets of its construction to the stylistician than is the language of plays and novels. (Crystal. 1987, 71). Poetry As well as conventional styles of language there are the unconventional – the most obvious of which is poetry. In Practical Stylistics, HG Widdowson examines the traditional form of the epitaph, as found on headstones in a cemetery. For example: His memory is dear today As in the hour he passed away. (Ernest C. Draper ‘Ern’. Died 4. 1. 38) (Widdowson. 1992, 6) Widdowson makes the point that such sentiments are usually not very interesting and suggests that they may even be dismissed as ‘crude verbal carvings’ and crude verbal disturbance (Widdowson, 3). Nevertheless, Widdowson recognises that they are a very real attempt to convey feelings of human loss and preserve affectionate recollections of a beloved friend or family member. However, what may be seen as poetic in this language is not so much in the formulaic phraseology but in where it appears. The verse may be given undue reverence precisely because of the sombre situation in which it is placed. Widdowson suggests that, unlike words set in stone in a graveyard, poetry is unorthodox language that vibrates with inter-textual implications. (Widdowson. 1992, 4) Two problems with a stylistic analysis of poetry are noted by PM Wetherill in Literary Text: An Examination of Critical Methods. The first is that there may be an over-preoccupation with one particular feature that may well minimise the significance of others that are equally important. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) The second is that any attempt to see a text as simply a collection of stylistic elements will tend to ignore other ways whereby meaning is produced. (Wetherill. 1974, 133) Implicature In ‘Poetic Effects’ from Literary Pragmatics, the linguist Adrian Pilkington analyses the idea of ‘implicature’, as instigated in the previous work of Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson. Implicature may be divided into two categories: ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ implicature, yet between the two extremes there are a variety of other alternatives. The strongest implicature is what is emphatically implied by the speaker or writer, while weaker implicatures are the wider possibilities of meaning that the hearer or reader may conclude. Pilkington’s ‘poetic effects’, as he terms the concept, are those that achieve most relevance through a wide array of weak implicatures and not those meanings that are simply ‘read in’ by the hearer or reader. Yet the distinguishing instant at which weak implicatures and the hearer or reader’s conjecture of meaning diverge remains highly subjective. As Pilkington says: ‘there is no clear cut-off point between assumptions which the speaker certainly endorses and assumptions derived purely on the hearer’s responsibility. ’ (Pilkington. 1991, 53) In addition, the stylistic qualities of poetry can be seen as an accompaniment to Pilkington’s poetic effects in understanding a poem’s meaning. Stylistics is a valuable if long-winded approach to criticism, and compels attention to the poem’s details. Two of the three simple exercises performed here show that the poem is deficient in structure, and needs to be radically recast. The third sheds light on its content. Introduction Stylistics applies linguistics to literature in the hope of arriving at analyses which are more broadly based, rigorous and objective. {1} The pioneers were the Prague and Russian schools, but their approaches have been appropriated and extended in recent years by radical theory. Stylistics can be evaluative (i. e.  judge the literary worth on stylistic criteria), but more commonly attempts to simply analyze and describe the workings of texts which have already been selected as noteworthy on other grounds. Analyses can appear objective, detailed and technical, even requiring computer assistance, but some caution is needed. Linguistics is currently a battlefield of contending theories, with no settlement in sight. Many critics have no formal training in linguistics, or even proper reading, and are apt to build on theories (commonly those of Saussure or Jacobson) that are inappropriate and/or no longer accepted. Some of the commonest terms, e. g. deep structure, foregrounding, have little or no experimental support. {2} Linguistics has rather different objectives, moreover: to study languages in their entirety and generality, not their use in art forms. Stylistic excellence — intelligence, originality, density and variety of verbal devices — play their part in literature, but aesthetics has long recognized that other aspects are equally important: fidelity to experience, emotional shaping, significant content. Stylistics may well be popular because it regards literature as simply part of language and therefore (neglecting the aesthetic dimension) without a privileged status, which allows the literary canon to be replaced by one more politically or sociologically acceptable. {3} Why then employ stylistics at all? Because form is important in poetry, and stylistics has the largest armoury of analytical weapons. Moreover, stylistics need not be reductive and simplistic. There is no need to embrace Jacobson’s theory that poetry is characterized by the projection of the paradigmatic axis onto the syntagmatic one. {4} Nor accept Bradford’s theory of a double spiral: {5} literature has too richly varied a history to be fitted into such a straitjacket. Stylistics suggests why certain devices are effective, but does not offer recipes, any more than theories of musical harmony explains away the gifts of individual composers. Some stylistic analysis is to be found in most types of literary criticism, and differences between the traditional, New Criticism and Stylistics approaches are often matters of emphasis. Style is a term of approbation in everyday use (â€Å"that woman has style†, etc.), and may be so for traditional and New Criticism. But where the first would judge a poem by reference to typical work of the period (Jacobean, Romantic, Modernist, etc. ), or according to genre, the New Criticism would probably simply note the conventions, explain what was unclear to a modern audience, and then pass on to a detailed analysis in terms of verbal density, complexity, ambiguity, etc. To the Stylistic critic, however, style means simply how something is expressed, which can be studied in all language, aesthetic and non-aesthetic. {6} Stylistics is a  very technical subject, which hardly makes for engrossing, or indeed uncontentious, {7} reading. The treatment here is very simple: just the bare bones, with some references cited. Under various categories the poem is analyzed in a dry manner, the more salient indications noted, and some recommendations made in Conclusions. Published Examples of Stylistic Literary Criticism G. N. Leech’s A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry (1969) Laura Brown’s Alexander Pope (1985) Roy Lewis’s On Reading French Verse: A Study in Poetic Form (1982) George Wright’s Shakespeare’s Metrical Art. (1988) Richard Bradford’s A Linguistic History of English Poetry (1993) Poem The Architects But, as you’d expect, they are very Impatient, the buildings, having much in them Of the heavy surf of the North Sea, flurrying The grit, lifting the pebbles, flinging them With a hoarse roar against the aggregate They are composed of — the cliffs higher of course, More burdensome, underwritten as It were with past days overcast And glinting, obdurate, part of the Silicate of tough lives, distant and intricate As the whirring bureaucrats let in And settled with coffee in the concrete pallets, Awaiting the post and the department meeting —  Except that these do not know it, at least do not Seem to, being busy, generally. So perhaps it is only on those cloudless, almost Vacuumed afternoons with tier upon tier Of concrete like rib-bones packed above them, And they light-headed with the blue airiness Spinning around, and muzzy, a neuralgia Calling at random like frail relations, a phone Ringing in a distant office they cannot get to, That they become attentive, or we do — these Divisions persisting, indeed what we talk about, We, constructing these webs of buildings which, Caulked like great whales about us, are always. Aware that some trick of the light or weather Will dress them as friends, pleading and flailing — And fill with placid but unbearable melodies Us in deep hinterlands of incurved glass.  © C. John Holcombe 1997 Metre Though apparently iambic, with five stresses to the line, the metre shows many reversals and substitutions. Put at its simplest, with: / representing a strong stress representing a weak stress x representing no stress, and trying to fit lines into a pentameters, we have -| /| x| x| x| /| -| | x| /| x| | But| as| you’d| ex| pect| | they| are| ve| ry| x| /| x| x| /| x| /| x| | x| x|. Im| pat| ient| the| build| ings,| hav| ing| much| in| them| x| x| | x| /| x| x| | /| /| x x| Of| the| heav| y| surf| of| the| North| Sea,| flurr| ying| x| /| -| /| x| x| /| x| /| x| | The| grit,| | lift| ing| the| pebbl| es,| fling| ing| them| | x| /| -| /| x| | x| /| x| | With| a| hoarse| | roar| a| gainst| the| agg| re| gate| x| | x| /| | x| /| /| x| x| /| They| are| com| posed| of,| the| cliffs| high| er| of| course| | /| x| | -| /| x| / | x| | | More| burd| en| some,| | un| der| writ| ten| as| | x| /| x| /| -| /| -| /| x| /| | It| were| with| past| | days| | o| ver| cast| | x| /| x|. | /| x| | -| /| x| x| And | glit| ter| ing,| ob| du| rate,| | part| of| the| -| /| x x x| /| -| /| -| /| x x| /| x x| | Sil| icate of| tough| | lives| | dist| ant and| in| tricate| -| | x| /| x| /| x| | -| /| x| | As| the| whir| ring| bu| reau| crats| | let| in| x| /| x x| /| x| | x| /| x| /| x| And | set| tled with| cof| fee| in| the| con| crete| pal| lets| x| /| x x| /| x| | x| /| x| /| x| A| wait| ing the| post| and| the| de| part| ment| meet| ing| x| | x| /| x | /| x| x| | /| x| Ex| cept| that| these| do not| know| it, | at| least| do| not| -| /| x| /| x| /| x| /| x| | x|. | Seem| to| be| ing| bus| y| gen| ER| all| y| | x| /| x x| /| x| | x| /| x| /| x| So| per| haps| it is| on| ly| on| those| cloud| less| al| most| -| /| x| /| x| | x| /| x x| | /| x| | Vac| uumed| af| ter| noons| with| ti| ER u| pon| ti| ER| x| /| x| | /| /| -| /| x| /| x| | Of| con| Crete| like| rib| bones| | packed| a| bove| them| | x| /| | /| x| | x| /| /| x| | | And | they| light| head| ed,| with| the| blue| air| i| ness| | -| /| x x| /| x| /| x| | x| /| x x| | | Spin| ning a| round| and| muz| zy,| a| neu| ral| gia| | -| /| x x| /| x x| /| x| /| x x| /| |. | Cal| ling at| ran| dom like| frail| re| lat| ions a| phone| | -| /| x x x| /| x| /| x x| /| x| /| x| | Ring| ing in a| dist| ant| of| fice they| can| not| get| to| x| /| x| /| x| /| x x| /| /-| | | That| they| be| come| at| ten| tive, or| we| do| these| | x| /| x x| /| x x| /| | x| /| x| /| Di| vis| ions per| sist| ing, in| deed| what| we| talk| a| bout| -| /| x| /| x x| /| x| /| x| | | | We,| con| struct| ing these| webs| of| build| ings| which| | -| /| x| /| | /| x| /| x x| /| x| | Caulk| Ed | like| great| whales| a| bout| us are| al| ways| x| /| x x| /| x x| /| x| /| x| | |. A| ware| that some| trick| of the| light| or| weath| ER| | | | /| x x| /| -| /| x x| /| x| | | Will| dress| them as| friends| | plead| ing and| flail| ing| | | x| /| x| /| x| | x| /| x x| /| x x| And| fill| with| plac| id| but | UN| bear| able | mel| odies| -| /| x| | -| /| x x x| /| | /| | | Us | in| deep| | hint| erlands of| in| curved| glass| | Poets learn to trust their senses, but even to the experienced writer these (tedious) exercises can pinpoint what the ear suspects is faulty, suggest where improvements lie, and show how the metre is making for variety, broad consistency, shaping of the argument and emotive appeal. Though other scansions are certainly possible in the lines above, the most striking feature will remain their irregularity. Many lines can only roughly be called pentameters; Lines 16 and 17 are strictly hexameters; and lines 27 and 28 are tetrameters. In fact, the lines do not read like blank verse. The rhythm is not iambic in many areas, but trochaic, and indeed insistently dactylic in lines 9 and 10, 21 and 22 and 28. Line 27 is predominantly anapaestic, and line 3 could (just) be scanned: x x| / x| /| x x | /| | /| x x | Of the| heavy| surf| of the North| Sea| | flurr| ying|. Reflective or meditative verse is generally written in the iambic pentameter, and for good reason — the benefit of past examples, readers’ expectations, and because the iambic is the closest to everyday speech: flexible, unemphatic, expressing a wide range of social registers. Blank verse for the stage may be very irregular but this, predominantly, is a quiet poem, with the falling rhythms inducing a mood of reflection if not melancholy. What is being attempted? Suppose we set out the argument (refer to rhetorical and other analyses), tabbing and reverse tabbing as the reflections as they seem more or less private: {8} 1. But, as you’d expect, 2. they are very impatient, the buildings, 3. having much in them of the heavy surf of the North Sea, 4. flurrying the grit, 5. lifting the pebbles, 6. flinging them with a hoarse roar against the aggregate they are composed of — the 7. cliffs higher of course, more 8. burdensome, 9. underwritten as it were with past days 10. overcast and glinting, 11. obdurate, 12. part of the silicate of tough lives, 13. distant and intricate as 14. the whirring bureaucrats 15. Let in and settled with coffee in the concrete pallets, awaiting the post and the department meeting — 16. except that these do not know it,  17. at least do not seem to, being busy, 18. generally. 19. So perhaps it is only on those cloudless, almost vacuumed afternoons with tier upon tier of concrete like rib — bones packed above them, and 20. they light-headed 21. with the blue airiness spinning around, and 22. muzzy, a 23. neuralgia calling at random like 24. frail relations, a 25. phone ringing in a distant office they cannot get to, that 26. They become attentive, 27. or we do — 28. these divisions persisting, 29. indeed what we talk about, 30. we, constructing these webs of buildings which 31. Caulked like great whales about us, are 32.  always aware that some trick of the light or weather will dress them as friends, 33. pleading and flailing — and 34. fill with placid but unbearable melodies 35. us in deep hinterlands of incurved glass. The structure should now be clear. Where Eliot created new forms by stringing together unremarkable pentameters, {8} this poem attempts the reverse: to recast an irregular ode-like structure as pentameters. And not over-successfully: many of the rhythms seemed unduly confined. But once returned to the form of an eighteenth century Pindaric ode, however unfashionable today, the lines regain a structure and integrity. Each starts with a marked stress and then tails away, a feature emphasized by the sound patterns. {9} Sound Patterning To these sound patterns we now turn, adapting the International Phonetic Alphabet to HTML restrictions: 1. But | as | you’d | expect | u | a | U | e e | b t | z | y d | ksp kt | 2. They | are | very | impatient | the | buildings | A | a(r) | e E | i A e | e | i i | th | – | v r | mp sh nt | th | b ld ngz | 3. Having | much | in | them | of | the | heavy | surf | of | the | North | Sea | a i | u | i | e | o | e | e | e(r) | o | e | aw | E | h v ng | m ch | n | th m | v | th | h v | s f | v | th | n th | s |. 4. flurrying | the | grit | u E i | e | i | fl r ng | th | gr t | 5. lifting | the | pebbles | i i | e | e | l ft ng | th | p b lz | 6. flinging | them | with | a | hoarse | roar | against | the | aggregate | they | are | composed | of | i i | e | i | e | aw | aw | e A | e | a E A | A | a(r) | o O | o | fl ng ng | th m | w th | – | h s | r | g nst | th | gr g t | th | – | k MP zd | v | 7. the | cliffs | higher | of | course | more | e | i | I e | o | aw | aw | th | kl fs | h | v | s | m | 8. burdensome | u(r) e e | b d ns m | 9.underwritten | as | it | were | with | past | days | u e i e | a | i | (e)r | i | a(r) | A | nd r t n | z | t | w | w | p st | d z | 10. overcast | and | glinting | O e(r) a(r) | a | i i | v k St | nd | gl NT ng | 11. obdurate | o U A | bd r t | 12. part | of | the | silicate | of | tough | lives | (a)r | o | e | i i A | o | u | I | p t | f | th | s l k t | v | t f | l vz | 13. distant | and | intricate | i a | a | i i e | d St NT | nd | NT r k t | 14. as | the | whirring | bureaucrats | a | e | e(r) i | U O a | z | th | w r ng | b r kr ts | 15. let | in | and | settled | with | coffee | in | the | concrete | pallets | e | i | a | e ie | i | o E | i | e | o E | a e | l t | n | nd | s tl d | w th | k f | n | th | k Kr t | p l Ts | awaiting | the | post | and | the | department | meeting | e A i | e | O | a | e | E e | E i | w t ng | th | p St | nd | th | d p tm NT | m t ng | 16. except | that | these | do | not | know | it | e e | a | E | U | o | O | i | ks pt | th | th z | d | n t | n | t | 17. at | least | do | not | seem | to | being | busy | a | E | U | o | E | U | E i | i E | t | l St | d | n t | s m | t | b ng | b z >/td> | 18. generally | e e a E | j nr l | 19. so | perhaps | it | is | only | on | those | cloudless | almost | vacuumed | afternoons | O | e(r) a | i | i | O | o | O | ou e | aw O | a U | a(r) e oo | s | p h ps | t | z | nl | n | th z | kl dl s | lm St | v k md | ft n nz | with | tier | upon | tier | of | concrete | like | rib | bones | packed | above | them | and | i | E e(r) | e o | E e(r) | o | o E | I | i | O | a | e u | e | a | w th | t | p n | t | v | k nkr t | l k | r b | b nz | p Kt | b v | th m | nd | 20. they | light | headed | A | I | e e | th | l t | h d d | 21.with | the | blue | airiness | spinning | around | and | i | e | U | (A)r i e | i i | e ou | a | w th | th | bl | r n s | sp n ng | r nd | nd | 22. muzzy | a | u E | e | m z | – | 23. neuralgia | calling | at | random | like | U a E a | aw i | a | a o | I | n r lj | k l ng | t | r nd m | l k | 24. frail | relations | a | A | e A e | e | fr l | r l zh nz | – | 25. phone | ringing | in | a | distant | office | they | cannot | get | to | that | O | i i | i | e | i a | o i | A | a o | e | oo | a | | f n | r ng ng | n | – | d St NT | f s | th | k n t | g t | t | th | | 26.they | become | attentive | A | E u | a e i | th | b k m | t NT v | 27. or | we | do | aw | E | oo | – | w | d | 28. these | divisions | persisting | E | i i e | e(r) i i | th z | d v zh nz | p s St ng | 29. indeed | what | we | talk | about | i E | o | E | aw | e ou | in d | wh t | w | t k | b t | 30. we | constructing | these | webs | of | buildings | which | E | o u i | E | e | o | i i | i | w | k nz str Kt ng | th z | w bs | v | b ld ngz | wh Ch | 31. caulked | like | great | whales | about | us | are | aw | I | A | A | e ou | u | a(r) | k kd | l k | gr t | w lz | b t | s | – | 32. always | aware | that | some | trick | of | the | light | or | weather | will | dress | them | as | friends | aw A | e (A)r | a | u | i | o | e | I | aw | e e(r) | i | e | e | a | e | lw z | w | th t | s m | tr k | v | th | l t | – | w th | w l | dr s | th m | z | Fr ndz | 33. pleading | and | flailing | E i | a | A i | pl d ng | nd | fl l ng | 34. will | fill | with | placid | but | unbearable | melodies | i | i | i | a i | u | u A(r) a e | e O E | f l | w th | PL s d | b t | n b r b l | m l d z | | 35. us | in | deep | hinterlands | of | incurved | glass | u | i | E | i e a | o | i e(r) | a(r) | s | n | d p | h NT l ndz | v | nk v d | GL s | Sound in poetry is an immensely complicated and contentious subject. Of the seventeen different employments listed by Masson {10} we consider seven: 1. Structural emphasis All sections are structurally emphasized to some extent, but note the use (in decreasing hardness) of * plosive consonants in sections 1, 5, 6, 7, 10-13, 19, 28-50; 31 and 35. * fricative and aspirate consonants in sections 2, 3, 6, 7, 12, 19, 25, 28, 32, 35. * liquid and nasal consonants in sections 3, 4, 12, 15, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 31-35. Also: * predominance of front vowels — in all sections but 6, 7, 11, 16, 17, 19 and 31. * predominance of vowels in intermediate positions — only sections 16 and 17 having several high vowels and section 3 low vowels. 2. Tagging of sections Note sections 1, 7, 13 and 15. 3. Indirect support of argument by related echoes * Widely used, most obviously in sections 3-7, 12-13, and 15. 4. Illustrative mime: mouth movements apes expression * Sections 2, 6, 11-13, 19, 31 and 35. 5. Illustrative painting * Sections 3-6, 10-13, 15, 19 and 33. Most sections are closely patterned in consonants. Those which aren’t (and therefore need attention if consistency is to be maintained) are perhaps 8, 9, 14, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26 and 27. Originally the poem was cast in the form of irregular pentameters. But if this is set aside in favour of the 35 sections listed above, how are these sections to be linked in a self-evident and pleasing form? A little is accomplished by alliteration: * f in sections 3 to 7. * s and t in sections 12 to 15 * w in sections 29 to 32 And also by the predominance of front and intermediate level vowels, but these do not amount to much. Certainly we do not find that the overall shaping of the poem emphasizes the argument or content. Sociolinguistics Language is not a neutral medium but comes with the contexts, ideologies and social intentions of its speakers written in. Words are living entities, things which are constantly being employed and only half taken over: carrying opinions, assertions, beliefs, information, emotions and intentions of others, which we partially accept and modify. In this sense speech is dialogic, has an internal polemic, and Bakhtin’s insights into the multi-layered nature of language (heteroglossia) can be extended to poetry. {11} Much of Postmodernist writing tries to be very unliterary, incorporating the raw material of everyday speech and writing into its creations. This poem seems rather different, a somewhat remote tone and elevated diction applying throughout. Let us see what’s achieved by grouping under the various inflections of the speaking voice. * urgently confidential But, as you’d expect, cliffs higher, of course, that they become attentive or we do * obsessively repetitious flurrying the grit, lifting the pebbles, flinging them†¦ Burdensome, underwritten†¦ overcast and glinting, obdurate * over-clever silicate of tough lives  distant and intricate constructing these webs of buildings distracted and/or light-headed except that these do not know it at least do not seem to with the blue airiness spinning around calling at random like frail relations * melancholic and/or reflective some trick of the light or weather will dress them as friends pleading and flailing and fill with placid but unbearable melodies. The exercise hardly provides revelation. Heteroglossia is an interweaving of voices, moreover, not shifts of tone or reference. And yet there is something very odd about the opening line. Why should we expect the buildings to be very impatient? This is more than the orator’s trick of attracting attention, since the animate nature of buildings and their constituents is referred to throughout the poem. To be more exact, the attitude of the inhabitants — observers, bureaucrats, architects — to the buildings is developed by the poem, and is paralleled by the tone. But why the confidential and repetitious attitude at the beginning. Why should we be buttonholed in this manner? Why the But, which seems to point to an earlier conversation, and the urgency with which that earlier conversation is being refuted or covered up? Because the blame for something is being shifted to the buildings. What error has been committed we do not know, but in mitigation we are shown the effect of the buildings on other inhabitants. Or perhaps we are. In fact the whirring bureaucrats seem to grow out of the fabric of buildings, and we do not really know if the we, constructing these webs of buildings is meant literally or metaphorically. The poem’s title suggests literally, but perhaps these constructions are only of the mind: sections 17, 20-29, 32 and 34 refer to attitudes rather than actions, and there is an ethereal or otherworldly atmosphere to the later section of the poem. So we return to heteroglossia, which is not simply borrowed voices, but involves an internal polemic, {12} that private dialogue we conduct between our private thoughts and their acceptable public expression. The dialogue is surely here between the brute physicality of a nature made overpoweringly real and the fail brevity of human lives. That physicality is threatening and unnerving. If the we of the later section of the poem is indeed architects then that physicality is harnessed to practical ends. If the constructing is purely mental then the treatment is through attitudes, mindsets, philosophies. But in neither case does it emasculate the energy of the physical world. Architects may leave monuments behind them, but they are also imprisoned in those monuments (us in deep hinterlands) and hearing all the time the homesick voice of their constituents. Conclusions: Suggested Improvements The greatest difficulty lies in the poem’s structure. An pentameter form has been used to give a superficial unity, but this wrenches the rhythm, obscures the sound patterns and does nothing for the argument. If recast in sections defined by rhythm and sound pattern the form is too irregular to have artistic autonomy. A return could be made to the eighteenth century Pindaric ode in strict metre and rhyme, but would require extensive and skilful rewriting, and probably appear artificial. A prose poem might be the answer, but the rhythms would need to be more fluid and subtly syncopated. Otherwise, blank verse should be attempted, and the metre adjusted accordingly. The internal polemic is a valuable dimension of the poem, but more could be done to make the voices distinct. http://www. textetc. com/criticism/stylistics. html1. On StylisticsIs cognitive stylistics the future of stylistics? To answer this question in the essay that follows, I will briefly discuss Elena Semino and Jonathan Culpeper’s Cognitive Stylistics (2003), Paul Simpson’s Stylistics (2004), and a recent essay by Michael Burke (2005). However, because questions are like trains – one may hide another – any discussion of the future of stylistics raises intractable questions about stylistics itself. French students of stylistics, for example, will come across definitions of the discipline like the following. According to Brigitte Buffard-Moret, â€Å"si les definitions de †¦ [la stylistique] – que certains refusent de considerer comme une scien

Do You Agree That Progress Is Always Positive? Essay

â€Å"Progress† is usually thought of as a positive thing. When people say, â€Å"He has made some progress,† others perceive it as a positive concept. Most of the [1] times, progress is positive, and positive progress can benefit one in many different ways. [2] But there are times when progress can also be harmful and [3] give negative effects. Thus, it will be [4] safest to say that [5] progress is [6] a â€Å"challenge.† One’s progress can promote numerous [7] salutations. It could provide guiding principles by letting one acknowledge new ideas [8], thus making him/her more informed and intelligent, and progress can also provide more opportunities [9]. [10] This opportunity is noticed usually when someone [11] achieve some progress [12] and his intending to stretch out more. Thus stepping forward and making progress might [13] sound always promotive and safe. [14] But let’s examine the situations when progress can [15] work counterly and become negative. â€Å"Making progress† can be [16] reiterated as stepping forward. [17] But who said that one will always profit out of stepping forward? Sometime [18] taking progress can [19] be miserable. [20] Think of case when people in stock markets take a challenge and make a progress. [21] Nobody knows what the outcome will [22] look like and many times [23] they lose most of their money. [24] So progress [25] can be positive, but [26] also [27] negative [28] ; just like flipping a coin. The main theme of the novel, â€Å"Father of the Fathers† by Bernard Weber gives a perfect example of misguided progress. Although the main character [29] search for the â€Å"missing link† of human evolution, every time he [30] progressed to grasp something new, he [31] continued to fall deeply into â€Å"missing link: and [32] become more and more confused. Finally he [33] finds out that [34] present human is the missing link and [35] it [36] is never understandable, he gives up. Therefore, [37] groping progress can sometimes [38] informative and positive, [39] it could also be disastrous and misguiding. [40] Conclusively, progress is not always [41] a positive action. It could certainly be informative, salubrious, and [42] providing opportunities, but it could also be miserable, misguiding, and even harmful. Therefore, [43] taking a progress is a challenge. [44] If progress is always positive, whey doesn’t everyone progress at any time?

Fast Food Advertisements Essay

1.Junk food advertising does not force parents to buy the food Just because junk food is advertised does not mean that parents should buy it for their children or give their children the money to buy it. It is important to recognise that parents have the final say, and also are ultimately responsible for what their children eat. We should place greater responsibility on parents, and if we are concerned that they are buying junk food for their children, we should attempt to address that problem. But, this has less to do with junk food advertising and more to do with informing the health decisions of parents. 2.If we apply the principle of individual responsibility, advertising is fine It is important not to hold businesses and advertisers responsible for the choices of individual consumers. If a consumer wants to purchase a good, the supplier should not be blamed for supplying it. The buyer wants to be pulled in by junk-food advertisements, and does not hold back their mind from unhea lthy food. There are ads for health foods, buy consumers don’t want to buy vegetables or fruits, and therefore hold back their mind from buying them. It is solely how to consumers want to react to their own decisions, and has nothing to do with the supplier. If a producer advertises their good, they should not be blamed for the consumer finding their good attractive. There are people who don’t like junk food at all, and they control their minds like that. It is simple how the person controls their mind to think. Just like in movies, or in the real world, there is or always needs to be some components of good and bad. The people themselves decide on which group they want to be in. Sadly though, these days, majority of people decide to be in on junk-food. We must maintain the notion of individual responsibility, or people will start blaming each other for their own bad choices. 3.Parents must talk to their children about health eating habits The truth is that ‘there is certainly a place for junk food in every diet’. Elizabeth Berger, author of â€Å"Raising Kids with Character† says, â€Å"Parents must talk to their children about the healthy amount. In the real world, children will be exposed to all sorts of advertisements and their parents will not always be able to protect them. Therefore, their parents must begin to teach them while they are still children†. 4 .Children have little or no money It is not sensible to aim advertisements at children because they have little or no money, and can’t afford to buy the junk food anyway. Also, by the time children do have enough money, and are able to transport themselves to a fast-food place without their parents, they will have grown older and have the age to take the correct decisions for themselves. Even if they do take the wrong decision, then it is completely their own fault, as they are old enough and responsible enough to make their own decisions. Children that are much younger need their parents for help. Also, when you are growing older with some pocket money, learning to manage money for the correct causes and reasons is a part of growing up. 5.Discipline plays a big part Believe it or not, discipline plays a big part in this whole issue. Fast food advertising has no magical power to create unnatural desires for food. Children who nag are simply badly brought up. Poor parenting and undisciplined children cannot be solved by banning food advertisements during children’s television shows, as children have many other influences which can still stimulate these desires. 6.Children naturally like foods that are rich in fats, proteins and sugar. Their craving is not started off by advertisements. They give them the energy to play energetically and grow healthily. It is true that eating only such foods is bad for people, but this is again a problem of bad parenting rather than the fault of food advertisements. And off course, it advertising junk-food is banned, than children will grow naive, and as they enter into the real world, they will then become inundated with ads, because they will have not learnt the skills of ignoring ads when younger. 7.Fast food advertisements appear not only on TV, but you can also hear them on other sources, such as radios. Say the government does ban fast food advertisements during children’s TV shows. Children also watch many other programmes that adults also enjoy, but these programmes still have fast food ads during them, remember. Does this mean we should extend this ban to all television advertising? And, why stop at television when children are also exposed to radio, cinema, the internet and billboards in the street as well? But, any restrictions will be impossible to enforce, as television is increasingly broadcast by satellite across national borders and cannot be easily controlled – nor can the internet. 8.Banning advertisements is a severe restriction upon freedom of speech Companies should be able to tell the public about any legal products (such as fast-food). Children also have a human right to receive this information from a wide range of sources and make up their own minds about it. They are far from being brainwashed by advertisements, which form only a small part of their experiences; family, friends, school and other television programmes are much more important and all give them alternative views of the world.

IT601-0903B-07 Information Technology in Business Management - Phase 1 Essay - 1

IT601-0903B-07 Information Technology in Business Management - Phase 1 Discussion Board 2 - Essay Example Also the other functions of the company like the Human resources and pays department can also be outsourced and this will help the company improve and concentrate in the online sales to improve the online business. Yes, it would be very beneficial for FYC to outsource near its distribution centre for the starting phase. This will be helpful as the company needs to maintain communication with the customers which will allow the company to understand the needs of the customers as well as for the customers to get to know the company better as well. The company will however be able to gain complete cost benefits only by outsourcing offshore (Brown & Wilson, 2005). The possibility of this however is only once the company is able to restructure the organisational tree and the company is able to coordinate the functions with the assistance of the local call centres. However the company can also benefit from the local outsourcing and this is mainly only possible if the company details it internal restructuring and also develops its online business and increases while other processes are outsourced, like mentioned earlier. FYC will also gain as it will gain newer customer from the online portal and will mostly be from high class and best companies using the state of the art

Securing the Border in Texas Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Securing the Border in Texas - Assignment Example ans that the people who will suffer the most are Texas families, from loss of jobs, high insecurity because of drug cartels and street gangs among other problems. Based on this problem, it is evident that there are two different sides when it comes to securing the border in Texas. The first side of this issue is that the state of Texas argues out that it has to continue taking action because it is not receiving any help from the federal government. The second side of this issue is that the federal government believes that it is doing the best that it can and that it is promoting national sovereignty. According to the annual report given by the Homeland security 2 years ago, there are enforcement actions taken every year by the government takes when it comes to securing the U.S borders. Thousands of illegal foreign nationals are usually apprehended, put in detentions and in their instances removed from the U.S. Based on these statistics among others, the federal government’s view is that the situation is improving (Simaski and Sapp 3). For example, a report on immigration statistics this year in September shows that Texas is among top U.S States where there are legal permanent residents who are about 9.4% (CNN Library). The advantage with the federal government showing that the issue of security is under control is that potential immigrants might be discouraged from making more attempts to cross the border. The other advantage is that it gives the people in Mexico the hope that they need to deal with the increasing rate of immigrants in their state. The New York Times news paper reported this year in August that the border patrol that is controlled by the government is now working closely with the Texas authorities when it came to sharing information and carrying out joint operations (Fernandez A1). This is an advantage because it provides hope for most people in Texas today who no longer have faith in the government security agencies. The primary

Stovall home products case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Stovall home products case - Essay Example We are sorry for the inconvenience caused for you in this regard and there is more effective solution available to remove stains from resin based finish. Please note, Mix the ingredients with one gallon of cold water, two tablespoon of sodium sulphate and a half cup of white vinegar thoroughly. Afterwards, immerse the whole jacket for about 20 minutes, then rinse the jacket by hand or run it in washing machine with water only, do not add anything at all and hang the jacket to drip dry. Sodium sulphate can be purchased either from a drug store or a photo supply shop. One more alternative solution is also available. You can send your Sportique jacket to us and we have many alternatives to work on it, it will take a couple of weeks’ time. If you are willing then do send it to us and Stovall will pay the postage. Website for â€Å"Negative Message Writing† (Writing Negative Messages, 2002). is used for learning about how we have to communicate the negative messages in various situations and it also involves various legal implications. In the above situation the problem is caused by the consumer not Stovall’s even though we need to treat the customer based on positive approach. So we have mentioned quite clearly the cause for the issue and also suggesting her some possible solutions to get rid of the problem. If she is not able do to it at home, Stovall is willing do to for her at Stovall’s cost. The above information can be arranged as per learning from the website. I referred a book for â€Å"Writing an effective business letter† (Writing An Effective Business Letter, 2013) for learning letter templates. Based on their template only, I had drafted the above

Effect of Progressive Muscle Relaxation Techniques on Chronic Pain in Dissertation - 1

Effect of Progressive Muscle Relaxation Techniques on Chronic Pain in Cancer Patients - Dissertation Example As the discussion declares studies relating to methods of pain relief in cancer patients using alternative methods of pain relief, other than pharmacological-based methods, are inconclusive on the effect of relaxation towards alleviating pain. In view of the fact that pharmacological methods use is prominent among cancer patients, these drugs exposes them to serious side effects such as loss of effectiveness with time or even inadequate pain relief among other side effects. NPPRIs are complementary pain management approaches and they include cutaneous stimulation such as massages, transcutaneous electrical stimulation and cognitive behavioral such as relaxation techniques. Muscle tension is minimized through relaxation techniques as they create powerful distractions. Cancer pain relief through relaxation techniques such as PMR is gaining ground among patients. PMR, as a relaxation technique, may break the cycle of pain, anxiety and reduce muscle tension. This review will examine evid ence of PMR where it is linked to relieving chronic pain in cancer patients. Data will be mined from systematic literature and analysed so as to identify the role, effectiveness and degree onto which PMR techniques can be used to relief pain in cancer patients. According to the research findings progressive muscle relaxation, a non pharmacological pain relief intervention (NPPRI) technique, involves the systematic tensing and relaxing of skeletal muscles of the body. PMR may involve a few muscles for patients in acute pain in a clinical environment.

Business Process Model & Notation (BPMN) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Business Process Model & Notation (BPMN) - Essay Example The clients and all other players are easily handled. However, to understand the effect of a BPMN process a real life example would be more effective. Business process modeling notation finds a professional real life application in the banking industry. Typical BPMN procedures follow three basic steps: the start event, the gateway and the end event (Allweyer et al. 16). In the event that a customer enters a bank to apply for a loan, the credit officer follows a set out procedure. The process would involve reviewing the client for eligibility then providing an application form. These two events constitute the start event. Secondly, after the client has filled the application, the banker follows a set criterion to study the application. The step here is the gateway. If the client qualifies for the loan, they are informed. The transaction then proceeds through to the end event where the money is disbursed. However, if the client fails the process returns to gateway and the client is notified of the decision. The management through a BPMN process already sets out all these procedures. Business process modeling notation sets out the procedures for engagement between an organization and its stakeholders. It serves to ensure all business transactions follow a well set out criteria and minimizes conflict (Allweyer et al. 90). The members within an organization also work within a set framework where information flows

Annie Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Annie - Movie Review Example This research will begin with the synopsis of musical Annie. The plot of the musical is a simple one, comprising of two acts. We are introduced to the first act where a young girl called Annie is in the company of her mates Molly, Kate, Pepper, Tessie, July and Duffy at a girls’ orphanage. Molly has a bad nightmare but Annie comforts her when she wakes up. At this time, Annie is planning to escape from the orphanage. When she attempts to do this, she is not successful as she is stopped by the supervisor of the orphanage, Miss Hannigan. However, she would later escape when the laundry man came at the orphanage. When the laundry man, Mr. Bundles comes to the orphanage, he distracts Miss Hannigan. As they talk, the other girls hide young Annie in the blankets. Her freedom lasts a short time as she is caught by a policeman and id dully returned to the orphanage. Later in the scene, Grace Farrell, a millionaire, visits the orphanage and requests to take one orphan home to her mansi on. She chose Annie as she was in Miss Hannigan's office at the time of her visit. She finds a new home and the new family embraces her. In the second scene, we are told more about Annie and her quest to get her parents. Warbucks is ready to pay a hefty sum to a couple that comes forward as Annie’s parents. When Miss Hannigan hears of this, she plans to have a pie of the money. A couple with the names Rooster and Lily come forward claiming to be the parents. They agree to give Miss Hannigan a sum of the money. However, this does not succeed as they are arrested.

Corporate strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Corporate strategy - Essay Example Additionally, the first manmade island, Palm Jumeirah, is one of such tourist destinations that are worth visiting. However, Dubai is inhibited by 1.4 million people, of whom less than 20% are natives of Dubai. This creates a sufficient skilled and un-skilled labor needs that are highly essential to fulfill the needs of development. And this has invited a large number of foreigners. Consequently, to fulfill the dearth of skilled and un-skilled labor, the Government of Dubai have allowed expatriates to serve and help the city of Dubai to become a dream destination of the tourists. Geographically, Dubai is ideally located, connecting the Indian Sub-Continent to Europe, the Far East and Africa. Besides serving a route business point, the tourists from such countries can easily reach Dubai. However, Dubai cannot avoid the threat of political instability in the region and, the criticism raised by the environmentalists over its excessive use of water and power to feed its growth of economy and tourism industry. Some recent reports suggest the ecological and carbon footprint is mostly contributed by Dubai due to its faster consumption of fossil fuels. In the following pages, the PESTEL analysis is followed by the SWOT analysis of Dubai. And in the end, some recommendations with conclusion are suggested in the light of the PESTEL and SWOT analysis. PESTEL analysis PESTEL stands for Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental and Legal. The main purpose of PESTEL analysis is to understand and evaluate the impacts of the external environment on an entity or a country or a city. Without any doubt, these factors directly or indirectly influence on the strategic and operational decisions. Consequently, they are taken into account before determining and implementing strategic decisions and policies. Political and Legal Dubai is one of the seven emirates of the United Arab Emirates (Emirates.org, web). Politically, UAE is run and administrated under the authorit y of federation. The UAE federal government has considerable powers to determine many areas of public interest; however, certain features of governance are assigned to the member emirates to determine and implement them as they wish to do so. Currently, many policies of Dubai towards the tourism industry are considerably aligned with the guidelines of the UAE, and the same line is applicable to the legislative part as well. Economic Dubai is the second wealthiest emirate after Abu Dhabi in the UAE (Dubai. Web). Recently, the global financial crisis of 2007 has severely hit the economy of Dubai, resulting huge job losses and rising unemployment. The recession considerably put on hold the entire economy of the Dubai. However, as the period of recovery is on its way, the city of Dubai has again initiated its journey towards the economic growth and development; in that growth, the tourism industry plays a vital role. Additionally, its projects like the Burj Khalifa skyscraper have attra cted vast amount of foreign investment (news.bbc, web). Technological Dubai cannot remain behind in the field of

The concept of God is incoherent Essay Example for Free

The concept of God is incoherent Essay The concept of God is incoherent. Discuss God is conceived of as a (supernatural) being that is eternal, omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, all good, all just and all merciful. These attributions appear to create logical difficulties, sometimes singly, sometimes when taken together, though it is in some cases necessary to add facts about the world (such as the existence of evil) to create the incoherence. In such cases, it is the whole picture of the nature of God plus aspects of reality that is held to be incoherence. Firstly God is Omnipotence. Omnipotence by definition means that God is all powerful. If God were all powerful, he would be able to do anything, which would include any act which he can overcome with his own power. For example; creating a stone so heavy, that he could not lift it. However the suggestion that God makes a stone so heavy that he himself cannot lift it is actually a contradiction and so logically this makes it impossible. One might react to this by saying that God is indeed so powerful that he can defy the laws of logic. However, a better response, in my view, is that being unable to do what is logically impossible is not a genuine limitation on Gods power, since any proposition that purports to say that some logically impossible act has been performed is in fact nonsense. In such a proposition, no act has really been described. Omnipotence does create problems in other areas. In addition another problematic attribute of God is his omniscience. Omniscience means all knowing. The claim is that if God is all knowing. However this creates a problem, if God knows everything then surely that must indicted that we as human do not have free will. For example suppose I am going to be going on holiday in March God would know that this was going to happen. (Gods foreknowledge) In some way God had already planned what would happen next. Therefore it hardly seems to be my act. However on the other hand if I was to commit a bad act that I am planning to carry out surely in this case we can apply the same method as the first illustration. It seems not fair to blame me for what God knew I was going to do anyway. He could have stopped me! Some people claim that surely we shouldnt be blamed also for our sins Basically in other words, Gods omniscience seems to prevent us having free will. However, I think the theist can give a plausible answer to this particular accusation of Incoherence. If I am free, my doing a particular action X makes it the case that God knows that I have done it, so that the causal relation runs the opposite way from that claimed in the objection. This does not imply that I can make it the case that God knew it before the time when I did X, and therefore that I can affect the past. For God is usually thought of as existing outside of time. (It is perhaps only in this sense that he can correctly be described as eternal-he never begins or ceases to exist.) Of course, it must be Gods decision to give us freedom to perform one act rather than another.

The Effect of Leadership Style on Security Guards’ Performance Essay Example for Free

The Effect of Leadership Style on Security Guards’ Performance Essay The following are the specific objectives of the study: 1. To determine the job performance level among security guard in Riyadh military hospital. 2. To examine the influence of leadership style on security guard’ performance in Riyadh military hospital. 3. To investigate the security guard mean differences in job performance based on level of education and experiences in Riyadh military hospital. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS Three research questions are as follows: 1. What is the job performance level among security guard in Riyadh military hospital? 2. What is the direct significant influence of leadership style on security guard’ performance in Riyadh military hospital? 3. Is there any significant difference in security guard’ performance based on level of education and experiences in Riyadh military hospital? 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY As mentioned earlier in the present study, the objective of the study is to explore the influence of job leadership style variables on security guards’ performance. If the findings of the study turn out to be true, the study will contribute to both theory and practice. Through the present research, the researcher expects the findings to shed light on the pertinent facets of the topic and add to the body of knowledge concerning leadership style towards security guards performance in Riyadh Military Hospital. On the practical side, the study possesses significance because it will attempt to give an insight into one of the major issues in Saudi Arabia’s security sector. In addition, the stakeholders in Ministry of Defense can also benefit from the research by using it to identify, investigate as well as examine the proposed factors that are found to influence security guards’ performance. 1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY The study looks at leadership style towards security guards job performance at Riyadh Military Hospital, Saudi Arabia. The participants of this study were security guards of Riyadh Military Hospital in Saudi Arabia. The total number of the security guards who participated in the study was 34 security guards 30 males and 4 females. In order to achieve the research objective in the present study, a survey conducted. Questionnaires distributed to the security guards in Riyadh Military Hospital from 15 October 2012 to 9 November 2012. 1.7 SUMMARY The present chapter discussed background of the study, problem statement, objectives of study, questions of study, scope and significant of the study. The next chapter (chapter two) will expound literature review of study variables, chapter three related methodology, and finally chapter four discussions of the findings and suggestions.

Role of Medicinal Plants for Health

Role of Medicinal Plants for Health General The use of natural products with therapeutic properties is as ancient as human civilization. For a very long time, mineral, plant and animal products were the main sources of drugs [1].The use of complementary medicine to alleviate and improve health conditions is increasing in developed countries [2]. New medicinal plants from different parts of the world are being investigated with this purpose in mind [3]. Although the utilization of botanicals has increased in the western world, there is a lack of information about mechanisms of action and potential differences among species within the same genus [4]. Now-a-days, several plants have been identified for their anticancer and anti-inflammatory compounds. Scientific experiments on the anticancer properties of plants and their components have been detected. Herbal medicines have been the basis of treatment and cure for various diseases and physiological conditions in traditional methods practiced such as ayurveda, unani and siddha. However no systematic studies were conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of the formulations from the plant were undertaken. Also no attempts were made to isolate and identify the active principles involved in these effects [5]. As an evolutionary response plants were obliged to produce and store a wide range of organic molecules. These substances are usually termed as secondary metabolites (SM). Some of these compounds are involved in the survival of the plants as a defense mechanism against natural enemies. Many SM could actively interact with targets in the human body inducing a bioactivity of interest [6]. The bioactive compounds of medicinal plants are used as anti-diabetic, chemotherapeutic, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic agents where no satisfactory cure is present in modern medicines. The use of plants for medicinal purposes dates back to antiquity because they contain components of therapeutic value [7]. Medicinal plants are cheaper and more accessible to most of the population in the world. The acceptance of traditional medicine as an alternative form of health care and the development of microbial resistance to the available antibiotics has led researchers to investigate various therapeutic uses of medicinal plants [8]. Therefore, the quest for plants with medicinal properties continues to receive attention as scientists are in need of plants, particularly of ethno botanical significance for a complete range of biological activities, which ranges from antibiotic to anti-cancerous [9]. Bangladesh features a sub-tropical climate and low-lying landmass largely adjacent to extensive river deltas. The country comprises very fertile soils and is home to some rare ecosystems such as the Sundarbans mangrove forests. Given the fertile plains and high population density, the indigenous vegetation has mostly given way to cropland and extensive cultivation. Today, almost 60% of the landmass is used for farming, which is a global maximum value. However, originally large parts of Bangladesh featured tropical forests and marshy jungle with highly bio-diverse flora being also an excellent source for medicinal plants. The Bangladeshi traditional medicine is a unique conglomerate of different ethnomedical influences. Due to the geographic location and sociocultural characteristics of the country, it involves traditionally rooted elements influenced by local indigenous people and close-by Indian Ayurveda and Unani medicine [10, 11]. Given its inexpensive, easily accessible and well-established health services, the use of traditional medicine is an integral part of public health services in Bangladesh with its providers being deeply embedded within the local community [12-14]. Recent data suggest that the utilization of traditional medicine health services in Bangladesh is widespread [15] and plays a crucial role in providing health care for poor people, people in rural areas and for tribal people [16]. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of medicinal plants The anti-oxidative activity has been confirmed contributing kinds of cancer and inflammatory preventions for its multiple functional roles. The production of oxidants is a typical event associated with aerobic metabolism. When oxygen is supplied in excess or its reduction is insufficient, reactive oxygen species or free radicals such as superoxide anions, hydroxyl radicals and hydrogen peroxide are generated [17]. Accumulation of the free radicals in body organs or tissues can cause oxidative damage to biomolecules and membranes of cell, eventually leading to many chronic diseases, such as inflammatory, cancer, diabetes, aging, cardiac dysfunction and other degenerative diseases [18]. In the last 50 years, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of extracts from medicinal or food plants have been extensively investigated. Many pharmacological studies have shown that extracts of some antioxidant plant possess anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-tumor, anti-bacterial, anti-muta genic and anti-viral activities to a greater or lesser extent. Researchers reported that intake of fruits, vegetables and other foods having high antioxidant activity has been associated with reduced risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and other diseases [17]. Trouillas et al. investigated the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative properties of sixteen French herbal tea and found some herbs exhibited high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative activities [19]. Antioxidant activities in twenty traditional anti-inflammatory herbs extracts were investigated. The results suggested that the anti-inflammatory activities of these extracts could be explained, at least in part, by their antioxidant properties [20]. Free radicals liberated from phagocyte cells are important in inflammatory processes, because they are implicated in the activation of nuclear factor kB, which induces the transcription of inflammatory cytokines and cyclooxygenase-2 [21 ]. Free radicals and oxidative stress Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a term that encompasses all highly reactive, oxygen containing molecules, including free radicals. Types of ROS include the hydroxyl radical, the superoxide anion radical, hydrogen peroxide, singlet oxygen, nitric oxide radical, hypochlorite radical, and various lipid peroxides. All are capable of reacting with membrane lipids, nucleic acids, proteins and enzymes, and other small molecules, resulting in cellular damage. ROS are generated by a number of pathways. Most of the oxidants produced by cells occur as: A consequence of normal aerobic metabolism: approximately 90% of the oxygen utilized by the cell is consumed by the mitochondrial electron transport system. Oxidative burst from phagocytes (white blood cells) as part of the mechanism by which bacteria and viruses are killed, and by which foreign proteins (antigens) are denatured. Xenobiotic metabolism, i.e., detoxification of toxic substances. Consequently, things like vigorous exercise, which accelerates cellular metabolism; chronic inflammation, infections, and other illnesses; exposure to allergens and the presence of leaky gut syndrome; and exposure to drugs or toxins such as cigarette smoke, pollution, pesticides, and insecticides may all contribute to an increase in the bodys oxidant load [22]. Most reactive oxygen species are generated as by-products during mitochondrial electron transport. In addition ROS are formed as necessary intermediates of metal catalyzed oxidation reactions. Atomic oxygen has two unpaired electrons in separate orbits in its outer electron shell. This electron structure makes oxygen susceptible to radical formation. The sequential reduction of oxygen through the addition of electrons leads to the formation of a number of ROS including: superoxide; hydrogen peroxide; hydroxyl radical; hydroxyl ion; and nitric oxide. Free radicals and other ROS are derived either from normal essential metabolic processes in the human body or from external sources such as exposure to X-rays, ozone, cigarette smoking, air pollutants, and industrial chemicals. Free radical formation occurs continuously in the cells as a consequence of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. Enzymatic reactions, which serve as source of free radicals, include those involved in the respiratory chain, in phagocytosis, in prostaglandin synthesis, and in the cytochrome P-450 system. Free radicals can also be formed in non-enzymatic reactions of oxygen with organic compounds as well as those initiated by ionizing reactions. Some internally generated sources of free radicals are Mitochondria, Xanthine oxidase, Peroxisomes, Inflammation, Phagocytosis, Arachidonate pathways, Exercise, Ischemia/reperfusion injury etc. Some externally generated sources of free radicals are- Cigarette smoke, Environmental pollutants, Radiation, Certain drugs, pesticides, Industrial solvents, Ozone etc. Normally, cells defend themselves against ROS damage with enzymes such as alpha-1-microglobulin, superoxide dismutases, catalases, lactoperoxidases, glutathione peroxidases and peroxiredoxins. Small molecule antioxidants such as ascorbic acid (vitamin C), tocopherol (vitamin E), uric acid, and glutathione also play important roles as cellular antioxidants. In a similar manner, polyphenol antioxidants assist in preventing ROS damage by scavenging free radicals. In contrast, the antioxidant ability of the extracellular space is less e.g., the most important plasma antioxidant in humans is uric acid. Effects of ROS on cell metabolism are well documented in a variety of species. These include not only roles in apoptosis (programmed cell death) but also positive effects such as the induction of host defense genes and mobilization of ion transport systems. This implicates them in control of cellular function. In particular, platelets involved in wound repair and blood homeostasis release ROS to recruit additional platelets to sites of injury. These also provide a link to the adaptive immune system via the recruitment of leukocytes. Reactive oxygen species are implicated in cellular activity to a variety of inflammatory responses including cardiovascular disease. They may also be involved in hearing impairment via cochlear damage induced by elevated sound levels, in ototoxicity of drugs such as cisplatin, and in congenital deafness in both animals and humans. ROS are also implicated in mediation of apoptosis or programmed cell death and ischemic injury. Specific examples include stroke and heart attack. All the biological molecules present in our body are at risk of being attacked by free radicals. Such damaged molecules can impair cell functions and even lead to cell death eventually resulting in diseased states. In recent years it has become apparent that the oxidation of lipids, or lipid peroxidation, is a crucial step in the pathogenesis of several disease states in adult and infant patients. Lipid peroxidation is a process generated naturally in small amounts in the body, mainly by the effect of several reactive oxygen species (hydroxyl radical, hydrogen peroxide etc.). It can also be generated by the action of several phagocytes. These reactive oxygen species readily attack the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the fatty acid membrane, initiating a self-propagating chain reaction. The destruction of membrane lipids and the end-products of such lipid peroxidation reactions are especially dangerous for the viability of cells, even tissues [23-25]. Membrane lipids present in subcellular organelles are highly susceptible to free radical damage. Lipids when reacted with free radicals can undergo the highly damaging chain reaction of lipid peroxidation (LP) leading to both direct and indirect effects. During LP a large number of toxic byproducts are also formed that can have effects at a site away from the area of generation, behaving as second messengers. The damage caused by LP is highly detrimental to the functioning of the cell [26]. Lipid peroxidation is a free radical mediated process. Initiation of a peroxidative sequence is due to the attack by any species, which can abstract a hydrogen atom from a methylene group (CH2), leaving behind an unpaired electron on the carbon atom (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢CH). The resultant carbon radical is stabilized by molecular rearrangement to produce a conjugated diene, which then can react with an oxygen molecule to give a lipid peroxyl radical (LOOà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢). These radicals can further abstract hydrogen atoms from other lipid molecules to form lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH) and at the same time propagate LP further. The process of LP, gives rise to many products of toxicological interest like malondialdehyde (MDA), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) and various 2-alkenals. Isoprostanes are unique products of lipid peroxidation of arachidonic acid and recently tests such as mass spectrometry and ELISA-assay kits are available to detect isoprostanes [27]. Oxidation of proteins by ROS/RNS can generate a range of stable as well as reactive products such as protein hydroperoxides that can generate additional radicals particularly upon interaction with transition metal ions. Although most oxidized proteins that are functionally inactive are rapidly removed, some can gradually accumulate with time and thereby contribute to the damage associated with ageing as well as various diseases. Lipofuscin, an aggregate of peroxidized lipids and proteins accumulates in lysosomes of aged cells and brain cells of patients with Alzheimers disease [28]. Inflammation Inflammation is one of the body unique mechanisms that help body to protect itself against infection, burn, toxic chemicals, allergens or other noxious stimuli [29]. It is a body defense reaction in order to eliminate or limit the spread of injurious agent [30]. The process is created by immune cells invading the tissue like an army in full battle mode [31]. There are various components of inflammatory reaction that can contribute to the associated symptoms and tissue injury [30]. During inflammation, innate cells and molecules are usually stimulated to isolate, destroy infectious agents and repair tissue, or sometimes the adaptive immune system is also stimulated [32]. Consequently, the mechanism works in a cascade, where the inflammation is often triggered by circulating immune complexes that enter tissues [31]. Principally, inflammation is manifested by pain, swelling, redness band loss of function in the afflicted tissue [31, 33]. Saladin (2007) categorized process of inflammation into three major processes; mobilization of the bodys defenses, containment and destruction of pathogens, and tissue clean up and repair [34]. While Mahat and Patil (2007) classified the process into three phases; the first phase is caused by an increase in vascular permeability, the second one by infiltration of leukocytes and the third one by granuloma formation [30]. The inflammatory response is initiated by circulating proteins and blood cells when they contact invaders in the tissue. Microbial invaders that lodge in body tissue and begin to proliferated triggered inflammatory response [33]. Bacterial products interact with plasma factors and cells to produce agents that attract neutrophils to the infected area (chemotaxis). The chemotactic agents, which are part of a large family of chemokines, include a component of the complement system (C5a), histamine, kinins, leukotrienes, and polypeptides from lymphocytes, mast cells, and basophils [35]. The neutrophils also produce oxidants and release granular constituents comprising of lytic enzymes performing important role in inflammatory injury [36]. The innate immune system contributes to inflammation by activating the alternative and lechitin-binding complement pathways, attracting and activating phagocytic cells that secrete cytokines and chemokines, activating NK cells, altering vas. The result would firstly be increased in blood flow to the affected tissue which accelerates the delivery of immune system element to the site [33]. The vasodilation would later cause enlarged capillaries and lead to redness (erythema) as well as increase in temperature, which for an influx of fluid and cells, contributing to swelling [32]. Saladin (2007) explained that the increased in blood flow also washes toxin and metabolic wastes from the tissue rapidly. In addition, vasoactive chemicals cause endothelial cells of the blood capillaries to separate a little, widening the intracellular cleft between them and increasing capillary permeability that ease the movement of fluid, leukocytes, and plasma proteins from the bloodstream into the surrounding tissue [34]. In the area of injury, many of the neutrophils enter the tissues. As neutrophils encounter bacteria, they avidly phagocytize, digest and destroy them. Neutrophils also recruit macrophages and additional neutrophils by secreting cytokines [33]. Activated macrophages and T cells in the inflamed tissue also secrete cytokines called colony stimulation factors, which promotes the production of more leukocytes by the red bone marrow. Within a few hours of inflammation, neutrophilia (the rise in the neutrophil count in blood) would occur [37]. Then, the neutrophils are attracted to the endothelial surface by selectins, and they roll along it. They bind firmly to neutrophil adhesion molecules of the integrin family. They next insinuate themselves through the walls of the capillaries between endothelial cells by a process called diapedesis [35]. Leukocytes adhere loosely to the selectins and slowly tumble along the endothelium, sometimes coating it so thick that they obstruct blood flow. This adherence to the vessel wall is called margination [38]. Later, the fibrinogens are filtered into the tissue fluid clots in area adjacent to the injury, forming a sticky mesh that sequesters bacteria and other microbes [34]. This is caused by release of chemicals from tissues and migrating cells. Most strongly implicated are the prostaglandins (PGs), leukotrienes (LTs), histamine, bradykinin, platelet- activating factor (PAF) and interleukin-1 [39]. Prostaglandin is implicated in inducing the production of various chemo-attractants and pro-inflammatory cytokines [36]. Gislason (2009) mentioned that macrophages and neutrophils are responsible to secrete a number of mediators which is responsible not just for initiation, but also for progression and persistence of acute or chronic state of inflammation [31]. Finally, monocytes acts as the major agent in tissue clean up and repair. It enters the blood from the bone marrow and circulated for about 72 hours. Then, they enter the tissues and become tissue macrophage. The macrophage becomes activated by lympokines from T lymphocytes [35]. The activated macrophage migrate in respond to chemotactic stimuli and later engulf and destroy bacteria, damaged host cells, as well as dead and dying neutrophils. Besides that, it also acts as antigen presenting cells and activating specific immune response [34]. Edema may also contribute to the tissue clean up. Nitric oxide is responsible for vasodilatation, increase in vascular permeability and edema formation at the site of inflammation [36]. The swelling compresses veins and reduce venous drainage, while it forces open the valve of lympathic capillaries and promote lympathic drainage. The lymphatics can collect and remove bacteria, dead cells, proteins and tissue debris better than blood capillary can. An accumulation of dead cells of neutrophils with other debris tissue and fluid will form pus, a yellowish fluid. It may accumulate in the tissue cavity and known as abcess [32]. Pus is usually absorbed, but sometimes it may be released by its rupture. Blood platelets and the endothelial cells in an area of injury secrete platelet derived growth factor, an agent that stimulates fibroblast to multiply and synthesize collagen. Hyperemia at the same time delivers the oxygen, amino acids and other necessities of protein synthesis, while the hea t of inflamed tissue increases metabolic rate and speed of mitosis and tissue repair. The fibrin clot in inflamed tissues may provide a scaffold for tissue reconstruction [34]. In part, inflammation declines simply because the mediators of inflammation have short half-lives, are degraded after their release, and are produced in quick bursts, only as long as the stimulus persists. In addition as inflammation develops, the process also triggers a variety of stop signals that serve to actively terminate the reaction [38]. Anti-inflammatory Activity Anti-inflammatory refers to the property of a substance or treatment that reduces inflammation. Anti-inflammatory drugs make up about half of analgesics, remedying pain by reducing inflammation as opposed to opioids, which affect the central nervous system. Drugs to control inflammation When healing is complete, the inflammatory process usually subsides [32]. However, an uncontrolled and persistent inflammation that sometimes is triggered by harmless agent such pollen or by an auto immune response. It may act as an etiologic factor for many of these chronic illnesses, where it may induce, maintain or aggravate the disease [29]. As mentioned, the inflammation would occur with the presence of antigen. Thus, constant supply of antigen is available from the food or environment may leads to chronic inflammation and causes diseases such as asthma, arthritis and other autoimmune diseases [31]. In such cases, the defense reaction themselves may cause progressive tissue injury. Hence, anti-inflammatory or immunosuppressive drugs may be necessary to modulate the inflammatory process [37]. Anti-inflammatory drugs are designed to targets the inhibition of the release of these mediators to control inflammation [36]. Harvey and Champe (2008) have classified anti-inflammatory drugs into three category; Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors (COX-2 inhibitors) and other analgesics [32]. Aspirin is a prototype of traditional NSAIDs. It works by irreversibly inhibit Cyclooxygenase 1 and 2 (COX-1 and 2) enzymes, which results in decreased formation of prostaglandin precursors [40]. Due to this mechanism of action, aspirin also cause adverse effects such as gastric hemorrhages, hypersensitivity and thrombocytopenia [41]. It is becoming a concern of healthcare providers that patients are developing intolerance from day to day. About fifteen percent of patients show intolerance with aspirin. Therefore, newer NSAIDs with greater anti-inflammatory activities are developed. However, the newer NSAIDs are considerably more expensive than aspirin and some have proved to be more toxic in the other way [32]. The second category is COX-2 inhibitor. The mechanism of action is by selectively inhibiting the activity of COX-2 enzyme that results in decreased of prostaglandin precursors [37]. Unlike aspirin, COX-2 inhibitors have an advantage by showing lower risk of developing gastrointestinal bleeding and have no significant effects on platelets [42]. However, this drug is not recommended for renal impaired patients because it may cause renal insufficiency and increase the risk of hypertension [40]. It also has some possible adverse effects recorded in Malaysian Index of Medical Specialities (MIMS) that it may cause allergic reaction, dizziness, headache, rash, upper respiratory infection and gastrointestinal disturbances such as dyspepsia, abdominal pain and diarrheas [41]. Acetaminophen is categorized under other analgesic because it has little or no anti-inflammatory activity [32]. It inhibits the synthesis of prostaglandin in the central nervous system and peripherally blocks pain impulse generations [40]. They have therapeutic advantages over narcotic analgesics which they do not cause physical dependence or tolerance and does not affect platelet function or increase blood clotting time, but it does have many of side effects similar to aspirin [42]. Rarely, skin rash and allergic reaction may appear as the side effects [41]. There are also drugs from autacoids antagonist such as antihistamines used to prevent progress of inflammation. The term antihistamine, without a modifying adjective, refers to the classic H1 receptor blockers [32]. H1 histamine antagonists drugs are develop effectively to target the receptors to treat hay fever and some skin allergies such as urticaria. H1 receptor blockers act on immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibody-sensitizing mast cell [37]. Rheumatoid arthritis is alleviated by drugs, which inhibit the cyclooxygenase enzyme and reduce synthesis of prostanoids, corticosteroids prevent the formation of both prostaglandins and leukotriens by causing the release of lipocortin that leads to inhibition of phospholipase A2 that reduces arachidonic acid release which is able to suppress the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis and asthma [39]. Anti-cytokines therapy involving target on Interleukin-1b (IL-1b) and tumor necrosis factor-ÃŽÂ ± (TNF-ÃŽÂ ±) that stimulate synovial cells to proliferate and synthesize collagenase, leading to degradation of cartilage, stimulation of bone resorption, and inhibition of proteoglycan synthesis is another method that is effective in treating rheumatoid arthritis [32]. Despite the benefits that the drugs hold, it also carries the side effects. As a result, it may lead various unwanted effects such as to gastric lesions, allergy reactions, tolerance and dependence, as well as resistance [40, 43]. Hence, worldwide researchers are still working to produce the ideal medicines of anti-inflammatory with highest efficacy, best potency and lowest or none side effects. Description of the plant investigated Bauhinia acuminata L. is a species of flowering shrub native to tropical southeastern Asia. The exact native range is obscure due to extensive cultivation, but probably from Malaysia, Indonesia (Java, Borneo, Kalimantan, Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Philippines. It is widely cultivated throughout the tropics as an ornamental plant. It may be found as an escape from cultivation in some areas, and has become naturalized on the Cape York Peninsula, Australia [44]. Common Name Bangla: Shwet Kanchan. Malaysian: Bunga Perak. English: Dwarf White Bauhinia, White Mountain Ebony [45]. Indonesian: Panawar Saribu (Sunda Islands); Kupu-kupu (Java) Thailand: Ka Long, SomSio Burma: Mahahlegabyu India: Kaanchnaara, Kovidaara (Ayurvedic); Kachnaal (Unani); Vellaimandarai (Siddha/Tamil); Kanchan (Assam); Shwetkachnar, Kachnalsafaid (Punjab) Sri Lanka: Sudu Kobalila (Singhalese) Japan: Moku-wan-ju. Taxonomical Hierchy: Kingdom : Plantae Subkingdom : Viridaeplantae Infrakingdom : Streptophyta Division : Tracheophyta Subdivision : Spermatophytina Infradivision : Angiosperms Class : Eudicots Superorder : Rosids Order : Fabales Family : Fabaceae Subfamily : Caesalpiniaceae Genus : Bauhinia Species : B. acuminata Binomial name : Bauhinia acuminata L. Botanical Description: Fig.-1.1: Bauhinia acuminata L. tree. Bauhinia acuminata L. is a member of the Fabaceae family. It is a rapidly growing shrub that can reach up to 3m tall. It rises with several strong, smooth, upright stems with many slender branches; young twigs being pubescent. The stipules are linear-lanceolate measures 1cm long. The leaves are cordate or nearly so are the base, bilobed to about one third of their length with obtuse or acute lobes 9-11 nerve, sparsely pubescent beneath, about 10cm long and broad. The flowers appear at the extremities of the branches 3-4 in a loose bunch with white petals. Thepedicels measure 6-12mm long. The flower buds fusiform, long attenuate at the apex and 5 setaceous dents, measures 3cm long. The calyx-limb laterally splitting, spathaceous; receptacle short. The petals obovate, measure 4cm long and 2cm wide. The stamens 10 all fertile, shorter than the petals; anthers small.The ovary shortly stipitate, sparsely pubescent. The pods are linear-oblong, stipitate, measure 10cm long and 1.5cm wide, d ark brown in colour containing 10 roundish compressed seeds [46, 47]. Traditional uses of Bauhinia acuminata L. The bark and leaves in a decoction helps relieve biliousness [48]. A remedy recommended by the Indian Vaiydas [45]. In Malaysia and Indonesia the plant is used in the treatment of common cold and cough [48]. The root seems to be the part made used of by the Japanese in treating cough and cold. In India the decoction of the leaves and bark is given for allying asthmatic attack. The Indians made used of the bark and leaves in a decoction to treat stones in the bladder, venereal diseases and leprosy [45]. Amongst the Mullu kuruma tribe of Karella the decoction of the bark is used in treating urinary discharge (gonorrhea). They make use of paste of the leaves applied on the throat for throat troubles. It is applied externally to treat skin diseases [49]. The root is boiled in oil and applied to burns and pain [45]. Objective of study To evaluate the free radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activity of Bauhinia acuminata L. bark extracts in rats. Significance of study Bauhinia acuminata L. is one of the

Tennysons Merlin and Vivien Essay -- Lord Alfred Tennyson Papers

Tennyson's Merlin and Vivien Known as one of Victorian England's finest poets, Lord Alfred Tennyson epitomized the agony and despondency of the degradation of one's character. His masterpiece, The Idylls of the King, explicates the grand scheme of corruption of the Authurian age while simultaneously paralleling Tennyson's own internal struggles. A most intriguing chapter of The Idylls, "Merlin and Vivien" portrays the manipulative Vivien, identified as pure evil and hatred, as her corruptive beauty leads to Merlin's self-destruction. The Victorian era, from the coronation of Queen Victoria in 1837 until her death in 1901, was an era of several unsettling social developments that forced writers more than ever before to take positions on the immediate issues animating the rest of society. Thus, although romantic forms of expression in poetry and prose continued to dominate English literature throughout much of the century, the attention of many writers was directed, sometimes passionately, to such issues as the growth of English democracy, the education of the masses, the progress of industrial enterprise and the consequent rise of a materialistic philosophy, and the plight of the newly industrialized worker. In addition, the unsettling of religious belief by new advances in science, particularly the theory of evolution and the historical study of the Bible, drew other writers away from the immemorial subjects of literature into considerations of problems of faith and truth. Tennyson's writing displays evidence of doubt and concern towards England's government, both present and past. His distinctive style can be differentiated from many Victorian poets by diction and syntax alone. Also, Tennyson can b... ... harmony. His poem "Merlin and Vivien" of The Idylls of the King displays Merlin's self-chosen downfall in exchange for the temptations of Vivien, the manipulative evil. "For Merlin, overtalked and overworn,/ Had yielded, told her all the charm, and slept." (ll.963-964) Bibliography: Works Cited Culler, Dwight. The Poerty of Tennyson. London: Yale UP, 1997. 238-239. Hain, Donald. Tennyson's Language. Toronto: Toronto UP, 1991. 144-148. Hellstrom, Ward. On the Poems of Tennyson. Gainsville: University of Florida Press, 1972. 117-118. Kincaid, James. The Major Poems of Tennyson: The Comic and Ironic Patterns. London: Yale UP, 1975. 177-182. Marshall, George. A Tennyson Handbook. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1963. 140-141. Reed, John. Perception and Design in Tennyson's Idylls of the King. Athens: Ohio UP, 1969. 48-58.

Peter Cook and E. E. Cummings Essay -- Biography Biographies Essays

Peter Cook and E. E. Cummings      Ã‚  Ã‚   Contemporary poets have made interesting additions to modern and post-modern poetry as a collective whole. They have given unique insights into the nature of modern poetry and provided a broader understanding into the purpose and concept of poetry as an art form. One contemporary poet of importance is Peter Cook.    Peter Cook is a contemporary deaf ASL poet. He incorporates American Sign Language, mime, dance, and storytelling into his performance of his poetry, which is written in American Sign Language and translated into written or spoken English. For instance, in the Flying Words Project, he performed his poetry in ASL while Kenny Lerner performed the same poetry orally (A Deaf Poetics). The most interesting aspect of his poetry is the visual aspect of his performance of it. Seeing the words on the page is not enough to understand any of his poems, but they must be seen, ideally with an understanding of ASL (Graz erzÃ…  hlt). One of his poems performed during the Flying Words project was videotaped.    poetry poetry poetry is shot . . . circling, revolving, exploding hits the open window . . . and it tastes delicious it's loaded into the magnum and is shot back into your heart poetry is the painter and the portrait . . . (The Best Minds of Our Generation)    To watch this performed, however, is a much different experience than simply hearing it voiced. This is similar to some of E. E. Cummings' poems which are visually arranged on the page in such as way to enhance the meaning of the poem aside from simply hearing the words aloud. Cummings' use of punctuation and spacing, breaking up words and carefully arra... ...ed to modern poetry as a form of expression. While pre-modern and classical poetry often focused on rhyme and meter, two poetic devices which have no meaning to deaf poetry, modern poetry has provided a much freer view of poetry that also looks at poetry as a visual art form. This view was, in part, brought about by the works of such poets as E. E. Cummings, and evolved into such intriguing projects as the Visual Words project at RIT, and the Flying Words project of Peter Cook.    Sources Cited: Cummings, E. E. Selected Poems. Liveright, New York. 1994.   http://www.tales.org/kuenstler/cook_eng.htm, Graz erzÃ…  hlt 2001   http://poetry.about.com/library/weekly/aa061097.htm, A Deaf Poetics, part III - Poetry - 6/10/97   http://www.poetspath.com/rm/flying.ram, The Best Minds of Our Generation (The Allen Ginsberg video is interesting, too)   

Essay --

Shakespeare at Othello, used only three female characters in his play, Desdemona, Emilia, and Bianca. Along with the play, Bianca’s boyfriend, Cassio, did not respect her enough to marry her, so he did not get jealous or treat her badly. Opposing to Othello and Iago, they respected Emelia and Desdemona enough to marry them, so jealousy pushed them to treat their wives badly. But on both cases Desdemona, Bianca, and Emelia still share the fact that they are victims and tools for those whom they loved the most. Firstly, Bianca’s boyfriend did not get jealous on her because she was not his wife, so he did not find a reason to treat his prostitute badly. Cassio was almost afraid to hurt Bianca’s feelings during the play. He used to act in front of her that he cares. A good evidence about this is when she shows up while he is waiting for Desdemona to bring him good news from Othello about bringing him back to work. He was not happy to see her. Once he saw her he said, "What make you from home?"(3.1), but after he says this, he recognize that he should not be so rude with her, so he tells her a nice lie, "How is it with you, my most fair Bianca? / I' faith, sweet love, I was coming to your house" (3.4). She answers, "And I was going to your lodging, Cassio. / What, keep a week away? seven days and nights?" (3.4). One equally important evidence shows how Cassio respected her feelings, is that he had never insulted her personally, yet he did it behind her back. When Bianca comes in after Cassio and Iago were talking, Cassio says, "'Tis such another fitchew! marry a perfumed one" (4.1). The word "fitchew" means â€Å"a polecat†, which means a bad smell that is known for people as excessively stink. The phrase "'Tis such another" shows how Cassi... ...did give my husband; /For often with a solemn earnestness /More than indeed belonged to such a trifle/ He begged of me to steal’t. (5.2). Emelia was nothing but a tool for Iago, he manages to kill her once she says the truth without appreciating what she has done to him all over her life. In conclusion, females’ position in Othello, clarifies that unmarried women would have a higher level of respect from the men they love because there is no jealousy nor commitments, or in other words, they do not care enough about them, but they only care about what they take from them, which is sex. Unlike married women, who were respected enough to be married from men, but jealousy turns their relationship into a life where respect does not take a place. Though, In all cases women are subjected to be victims and tools to men who do not appreciate their love and caring enough.

Ielts Handbook Essay

Introduction This Handbook gives an overview of IELTS for teachers, administrators and other users, including staff in receiving organisations such as universities, professional registration boards and employers. It outlines the key features and administrative procedures for IELTS. The Handbook does not include complete samples of the test components; these are given in the Official IELTS Practice Materials pack, which can be bought from IELTS test centres, or from Cambridge ESOL or IDP: IELTS Australia (see page 20). Additional information is given on the IELTS website www.ielts.org Academic and General Training IELTS is available in two formats – Academic and General Training. The Academic Reading and Writing tests assess whether a candidate is ready to study or train in the medium of English at an undergraduate or postgraduate level. Admission to undergraduate and postgraduate courses is based on the results of these tests. The General Training Reading and Writing tests are not designed to test the full range of formal language skills required for academic purposes, but emphasise basic survival skills in a broad social and educational context. General Training is suitable for candidates who are going to English-speaking countries to complete their secondary education, to undertake work experience or training programmes not at degree level, or for immigration purposes to Australia, Canada and New Zealand. It is the responsibility of the candidate to inform the test centre whether they wish to take the Academic or General Training Modules. Centres are not responsible for providing this information. The General Training Module is not offered at all test administrations. What is IELTS? IELTS, the International English Language Testing System, is designed to assess the language ability of candidates who need to study or work where English is the language of communication. IELTS is jointly managed by the University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations (Cambridge ESOL), British Council and IDP: IELTS Australia. IELTS conforms to the highest international standards of language assessment. It covers the four language skills – listening, reading, writing and speaking. IELTS is recognised by  universities and employers in many countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK and the USA. It is also recognised by professional bodies, immigration authorities and other government agencies. IELTS is not recommended for candidates under the age of 16. Test Administration IELTS tests are administered at centres throughout the world – there are currently over 300 centres operating in more than 100 countries. Centres supervise the local administration of the test and ensure the provision of qualified and trained examiners. A full list of centres is available on the IELTS website. Test centres run regular test administrations, according to local need and results are available within two weeks. Candidates receive only one copy of their results but additional copies may be sent by the test centre directly to receiving organisations at the request of the candidate. There are no restrictions on candidates re-taking the test. Test Format Candidates are tested in listening, reading, writing and speaking. All candidates take the same Listening and Speaking tests. There is a choice between Academic and General Training in the Reading and Writing tests. The tests are designed to cover the full range of ability from non-user to expert user. The first three tests – Listening, Reading and Writing – must be completed in one day. There is no break between the tests. The Speaking test may be taken, at the discretion of the test centre, in the period seven days before or after the other tests. A computerised version of IELTS Listening, Reading and Writing tests (CB IELTS) is available at selected centres, but all centres will continue to offer paper-based IELTS and candidates will be given the choice of the medium in which they wish to take the test. Listening Time: approximately 30 minutes Candidates listen to a number of recorded texts. These include a mixture of monologues and conversations and feature a variety of English accents. The recording is heard only once, and candidates are given time to read the questions and write down their answers. Academic Reading Time: 60 minutes There are three reading passages with tasks. Texts are taken from books, magazines, journals and newspapers, all written for a non-specialist audience. At least one of the texts contains a detailed argument. General Training Reading Time: 60 minutes The texts are based on the type of material candidates would be expected to encounter on a daily basis in an English-speaking country. They are taken from sources such as newspapers, advertisements, instruction manuals and books, and test the candidate’s ability to understand and use information. The test includes one longer text, which is descriptive rather than argumentative. Preparing for the Test It is not necessary to attend an IELTS preparation course though it is, of course, a good idea to prepare thoroughly for the test. An order form is given at the end of this Handbook for an Official IELTS Practice Materials pack. This includes a full practice test with an answer key and a CD of the Listening test and sample Speaking tests, so that candidates can get some idea of their level and familiarise themselves with the format of the test. There is also a wide range of published preparation materials. Academic Writing Time: 60 minutes The first task requires candidates to write a description of at least 150 words. This is based on material found in a chart, table, graph or diagram and demonstrates their ability to present information and to summarise the main features of the input. For the second task, candidates write a short essay of at least 250 words in response to a statement or question. They are expected to demonstrate an ability to present a position,  construct an argument and discuss abstract issues. General Training Writing Time: 60 minutes The first task requires candidates to write a letter of at least 150 words either asking for information, or explaining a situation. For the second task, candidates write a short essay of at least 250 words in response to a statement or question. They are expected to demonstrate an ability to present a position, construct an argument and discuss issues. Speaking Time: 11–14 minutes The test is a face-to-face interview. Candidates are assessed on their use of spoken English to answer short questions, to speak at length on a familiar topic, and also to interact with the examiner. IELTS Test Results Marking is carried out at the test centre by trained examiners whose work is closely monitored. This ensures that test results are available without any administrative delay. Results are standardised and usually available within two weeks of the test, and Test Report Forms are sent to the candidates and to the sponsor(s)/receiving institution(s). Test centres are not permitted to give results over the phone, or by fax or email. The completed Test Report Form bears a centre stamp, a validation stamp, the candidate’s photograph and the authorised centre representative’s signature. The authenticity of any Test Report Form can be verified by means of the Test Report Form Verification Service located at https://ielts.ucles.org.uk British Council, IDP: IELTS Australia and Cambridge ESOL reserve the right to cancel any Test Report Form in the event of any attempt to tamper with or misuse the information contained in it. Test Scores IELTS provides a profile of a candidate’s ability to use English. Candidates  receive scores on a Band Scale from 1 to 9. A score is reported for each test component. The individual test scores are then averaged and rounded to produce an Overall Band Score according to a confidential Band Score conversion table. Overall Band Scores and individual test scores are reported in whole and half bands. Test Report Form An example of the Test Report Form is shown on the right. Each test is reported separately as a Band Score, together with an Overall Band Score. A descriptive statement giving a summary of the English of a candidate classified at each band level is provided below and is included on the reverse of the Test Report Form. Has fully operational command of the language: appropriate, accurate and fluent with complete understanding. Has fully operational command of the language with only occasional unsystematic inaccuracies and inappropriacies. Misunderstandings may occur in unfamiliar situations. Handles complex detailed argumentation well. Has operational command of the language, though with occasional inaccuracies, inappropriacies and misunderstandings in some situations. Generally handles complex language well and understands detailed reasoning. Has generally effective command of the language despite some inaccuracies, inappropriacies and misunderstandings. Can use and understand fairly complex language, particularly in familiar situations. Has partial command of the language, coping with overall meaning in most situations, though is likely to make many mistakes. Should be able to handle basic communication in own field. Basic competence is limited to familiar situations. Has frequent problems in understanding and expression. Is not able to use complex language. Conveys and understands only general meaning in very familiar situations. Frequent breakdowns in communication occur. No real communication is possible except for the most basic information using isolated words or short formulae in familiar situations and to meet  immediate needs. Has great difficulty understanding spoken and written English. Essentially has no ability to use the language beyond possibly a few isolated words. No assessable information provided.